Ch. II. Operation of the Balance of Debt upon
Exchanges.
Balance of debt … against a country … often takes place for a limited time, and to a great amount. (58) In such circumstances, the money to be drawn from it exceeds the money to be transmitted to it; the bills drawn on the debtor country therefore exceed the bills drawn on the creditor country. The merchants on ’Change in the debtor country, wanting to remit, are more numerous than those who want to draw; while those on ’Change in the creditor country, who want to draw, are more numerous than those who want to remit. In each case the supply of bills is inversely as the demand … the bills drawn on the debtor country, being more than are demanded, must be sold cheap, and the bills drawn on the creditor country, being fewer than are demanded, must be sold dear. (58)
Z.B. wenn Irland mehr in England zu zahlen als von England zu fordern hat, dann: On ’Change in Dublin there are fewer bills on London than are required, the holders therefore demand for them a greater sum of Irish money than they sell for when at par; and the buyers are obliged to give it, in order to procure them: in this instance, the exchange is said to be unfavourable to Ireland, because any given sum of Irish money will exchange for a less sum of English money than it is really worth. (59, 60)
100£ British should contain as much silver as 108l. 6s. 8d. Irish;
81/3 is therefore
said to be the par with Ireland. (59 [Note])
On the other hand, in London, the persons who want to draw from Dublin, are
more numerous than those who want to remit: there are more bills on Dublin
to be sold, than are demanded; and the sellers therefore must give them for
less than they would demand, if the buyers and sellers were equally
numerous: here again the exchange is unfavourable to Ireland for the same
reason. … If there were no mode of making the remittances, except in bills
of exchange, the price of these bills must proportion itself exactly to the
supply, and … if Dublin had to remit 2 × as much as it was to receive, the
exchange must be 50% against Dublin. (60) Unter dieser Voraussetzung »it
would follow as a necessary consequence, that
Hervorhebung in der Quelle.
Schließen there must be a constant proportion between the balance of
debt and the rates of exchange
… but, in fact, no such connexion. (60, 61) When the balance of debt
has raised the exchange to a certain limit, it ceases to operate on the
exchange … This limit … is the Hervorhebung in der Quelle.
Schließen
expense of transmitting the precious metals from
the debtor to the creditor country
(cost of carriage, price of insurance, and in some cases, a
compensation for the risk incurred in violating the laws of the country,
which prohibit its exportation; ausserdem, in most foreign exchanges,
reasonable profits für the bullion merchants. (61)
Seit dem establishment der mail coaches, price of carriage und insurance zwischen Dublin und London von 1 to 11/2%. Nach dem Evidence (des Committee, früher citirt) (p. 3):
Carriage and insurance to Holyhead, per cent | 7s. 6d. |
Freight to Dublin | 2 |
9. 6. |
So lange daher Goldcirculation Niemand would give much more than 109 or 110£ Irish for a bill on London for 100£ British. ([62,] 63) For 4 years previous to the restriction, 109l. 5s. Irish was the greatest price paid in Dublin for 100l. British ⦗many persons zahlten lieber dieße few shillings more rather than be at the trouble of demanding gold at the Bank, and packing it for its journey.⦘ Seit 1728 (mit Ausnahme von 1753 worüber später) exchanges zwischen Dublin und London never rose beyond the expense of sending gold from one country to the other. (63)
The same limit which the power of procuring gold imposed upon the rates of exchange in Dublin, equally confined the exchange in London. 100£ English for an Irish Bill of 109l., with one % additional for the interest of his money, because, by sending that bill to his correspondent in Dublin, and having the amount remitted to him in gold, he might receive a sum in London equivalent to 100£ British. ([63,] 64) The exchange of London in Dublin, previous to the restriction, was generally 1% higher than Dublin on London; but 1% of this was interest, and not exchange. (64, 65 Note)
If the expense of transmitting gold from Dublin to London was increased, whenever a balance of debt was due by Dublin, the exchange might rise to the amount of that expense. (65)
In the time of Sir W. Petty … the exchange was 15% (this was all a real exchange against Ireland; for there was then no difference in the currency. The Irish. Irish £ St. contained as much silver as the English one.)
Aber diese 15% due to a system of
Hervorhebung in der Quelle.
Schließen regulation
, which provided that the remittances from
Dublin to London should pass through Barbadoes.
Petty
sagt:
„That to remit so many great sums out of Ireland into England, when all trade is prohibited between the said two kingdoms, must be very chargeable; for now the goods which go out of Ireland, in order to furnish the said sums in England, must, for example, go into the Barbadoes, and there be sold for sugars which, brought into England, are sold for money to pay there what Ireland owes: |43 which way being so long, tedious, and hazardous, must necessarily so raise the exchange of money, as we have seen 15 P.Ct. frequently given annis 1671 and 1672; although, in truth, exchange can never be naturally more than the land and water carriage of money between the two kingdoms, and the increase of the same upon the way, if the money be alike in both places. But men that have not had the faculty of making these transmissions with dexterity have chose rather to give 15 p.ct. exchange as aforesaid than to put themselves upon the hazard of such undertakings, and the mischief of being disappointed.“ (65, 66)
[»]It may be imagined, that in time an unfavourable balance
of debt might exhaust a country of its gold, and that then the rates of
exchange would be regulated exactly in proportion to the balance of debt:
yet … an unfavourable balance of debt has no such effect; its operation is
Hervorhebung in der Quelle.
Schließen to force exports, and diminish imports; but neither to raise
the exchange indefinitly, nor yet exhaust the country of
its
Hervorhebung in der Quelle. Foster:
circulating medium
Schließen circulation
.« (66, 67)
Zusatz von Marx.
Schließen Dieß erklärt sich Foster as currency man natürlich daraus, daß, wo
z.B. »Gold the necessary medium of circulation, it must, from the nature
of things, receive an artificial value in the country exactly proportionate
to the balance of debt, and sufficient, in every instance, to retain it
within the country.[«] (68) Thus it is, that
every balance of debt carries with it the powerful and certain principle of
its own destruction, not in the unfavourable exchange which it produces
(whose feeble operation must be as confined as the limit by which it is
restrained), but by the value which it gives to the
precious metals; – a value seen only in the
cheapness of commodities that ensues, and the quantity of them that
is thereby forced into existence for exports; –
Hervorhebung in der Quelle.
Schließen a quantity and a cheapness both proportionate to the balance
of debt, though bearing no proportion whatever to the rates of
exchange
, which continue fixed at the expense of transmitting gold, and which
gold confines within that limit, not by actually going in the place of
bills, but by its constant readiness to go. (68)
Kommentar von Marx.
Schließen Hier hat der Mann wenigstens eine Konsequenz, welche
die modernen currency men nicht zu ziehn wagten:
»Under such circumstances gold would have a positive tendency to flow into the debtor country, and not to leave it; the same increase of value which it has received from the demand to retain it, will attract it from abroad, as gold, like every other commodity, will seek the best market.[«] (69)
It may be said, that though such
might be the effect, if no national Bank were established, yet that so
long as there is a Bank obliged to furnish gold, gold will be expected
until the Bank is ruined: but the Bank,
in undertaking this obligation, has not left itself without remedy. The
Directors well know, that their conduct, under such
circumstances, would be to reduce the amount of their
notes in circulation until the drain on them was discontinued; that
is,
Hervorhebung in der Quelle.
Schließen until the circulating medium had from its scarcity attained
such a value
, that exports were called into circulation sufficient to discharge the
balance. Thus the Directors formerly used to adopt the
same remedy which, had there been no Bank, the
balance of debt would itself have produced. Since the restriction
has been imposed, they seem to have changed their
principles as much as they have changed their practice; for their
evidence (See the
Evidence
101, 102, 99) seems now to infer, that it is proper
that an unfavourable balance should not render money
scarce, and that
Hervorhebung in der Quelle.
Schließen they
act as friends of the country in supplying it
with a quantity of circulating medium in proportion
to its scarcity. (69, 70)
Kommentar von Marx.
Schließen Hier haben wir also verbotenus
die
Anwendung des currency principle auf
Banknote issues, wie Overstone etc sie
predigt. Er führt diese Theorie weiter aus in folgendem:
It is evident that an unfavourable exchange, proceeding from a balance of
debt, must operate as a bounty on the exports, and duty on the imports of
the debtor country. When a sum of foreign money can purchase more
English money than usual, it is a temptation to the foreigner
to purchase commodities in England, because he purchases them just so much
cheaper, as his money has increased in value, compared to that of England.
The unfavourable exchange thus contains within it a tendency to redress
itself, by encouraging exports to discharge the balance; but Hervorhebung in
der Quelle.
Schließen
this tendency never can be greater than the
encouragement it offers to exports; and this is confined to the
price of sending gold or silver from the debtor to the creditor
country. Between England and the Continent this may
amount to 5 or 8%; between England and Ireland it cannot much exceed 1%.
Their vicinity to each other, and the ease of communication between them,
have happily confined the expense of carriage within such narrow limits. So
far then as 1 or 2% the balance of debt against Ireland may be considered as
tending to redress itself through the medium of
exchange; but beyond that, disregarding the efforts of so
inefficient an agent, it exerts its own more powerful
energy, an energy always commensurate to the
difficulty to be removed. The balance of debt is not redressed by
the puny operations of exchange, but by the scarcity of
money which ensues on the extensive demand for it, by the artificial
value which money obtains within the debtor country consequent to such
demand, and which is not marked in its foreign exchanges, but by the cheapness of all commodities which follows on
the increased value of money; and by the exertions of industry
within the country to produce these commodities, as the only means of
obtaining it. Such a situation occasions the increased
value of the precious metals as compared with commodities, more than the
increased or diminished value of the circulating medium of one country
as compared with another. (70–72)
Der Exchange hat, in time, continued in Ireland. Und in limit of amount, ditto, denn der real Exchange cannot be much above 1% against Ireland; aber it has been near 12%. In September 1803, the exchange of London on Dublin was 20; that is, 111/3% against Ireland. (72) This has for years continued progressively to increase. (73)
It may well be doubted that as this country sends annually into Ireland a loan of 2 mill. to 2,500,000l., whether so great a payment is not a least equivalent to the annual balance of debt due from Ireland. (73, 74)
Umgekehrt: the balance of payment is actually, and has been all along in favour of Ireland. Wie gezeigt durch Mr. Marshall, the Inspector General of Exports and Imports in that country. (74)|
44Das Committee of Inquiry ist zu demselben Schluß gekommen, daß England the debtor country. Nach ihrer Rechnung:
Creditor. | Debtor. | ||
---|---|---|---|
By Balance of Trade in favour of Ireland, stated according to
the
Hervorhebung in der
Quelle. Schließen current value: |
£917,299 | To remittances to absentees: | £2,000,000 |
Amount of sums transmitted to Ireland on account of loans, lotteries and public services: | 1,459,590 | Balance in Favour of Ireland: | £376,889 |
£.2,376,889 | (75, 76) |
Die Personen, wonach die Balance unfavourable to Ireland … rested their assumption solely on the fact of the unfavourable exchange. (77) An unfavourable exchange, according to them, was an infallible criterion of the state of the balance of the debt … complete begging of the question. (77, 78)
Inhalt:
-
Wechselrechnung (Contin.)
-
Berechnung der Staatspapiere u. Aktien.
-
Gold- und
Silberrechnung.
-
I)
-
II)
-
III) Münzrechnung.
- 1) Uebersicht der Münzen in Bezug auf
ihr Gewicht.
-
2) Feingehalt der
Münzen nach ihrer gesetzlichen Ausprägungin
Tausendtheilen.
-
3) Uebersicht
der Münzfüsse.
-
4) Berechnung der
Ausmünzungsverhältnisse.
-
5) Berechnung
des Werths der Münzen.
-
I) Münzkursnotirungen nach Procenten u.
Stücken.
-
II) Münzkursnotirung al
marco.
-
IV) Silberscheidemünzen
Kupfermünzen.
- 1) Uebersicht der Münzen in Bezug auf
ihr Gewicht.
-
I)
-
IV) Berechnung des
Gold- u. Silberverhältnisses.
-
Merkantilische Berechnung der
Maaße und Gewichte.
-
Waarenrechnung.
-
Berechnung der Seeschäden oder
Havarien.
-
Preface.
-
Ch. I) General Nature and Effects of the
Balance of Trade
.
-
Ch. II. Operation of the Balance of Debt upon
Exchanges.
-
Ch. III) Causes unconnected with the Balance of Debt
Regulating the Nominal Rates of Exchanges.
-
Chapter IV. Causes and Effects of the Exchange between
Grt. Britain and Ireland.
-
V Chapter. General Remedy for unfavourable
Exchanges.
-
VI Chapter. Application of the Remedy in Ireland.
-
Appendix. N. VII. p. 208.
-
1) Vertheilung des Grundbesitzes.
-
2) Verhältniß der Zahl der
Grundbesitzer zum Flächenraum.
-
3) Schuldbelastung des
Grundbesitzes.
-
4) Agricole Bevölkerung.
-
5) Verhältniß der industriellen Bevölkrung zur
Agricolenbevölkerung.
-
6) Verhältniß der Industriellen Bevölkerung zur
Totalbevölkerung.
-
A. Landwirthschaft.
- B) Bodenerzeugnisse.
-
a) Getreide.
-
b) Reis (blos aus 3 Staaten Angaben)
-
c) Hülsenfrüchte. Hectoliter.
-
d) Kartoffeln.
- e) Runkelrüben.
-
f) Stoppel- u. Futterrüben.
-
g) Kopfkohl (Kraut.)
-
h) Wein.
- i) Rosinen (Cibeben u. Korinthen)
- k) Oel.
- l) Flachs.
- m) Hanf.
-
n) Baumwolle.
-
o) Hopfen.
-
p) Tuback.
-
q) Heu. (Angaben aus 8 Staaten)
-
r) Holz.
-
a) Getreide.
-
C) Thierproduktion.
-
Bodenwerth. (Angaben aus 15 Staaten)
-
Bergbau
-
Recapitulation der Urproduction. Jh. Gesammtwerth
derselb.
-
3) Industrie.